FUTHARK / Alchemy

 The elder FUTHARK consists of 24 runes, often arranged in three groups of eight, called ætts. Each ætt is named after a Norse god or goddess that rules over it. The elder Futhark is also known as the Older Futhark, Old Futhark, or Germanic Futhark.

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The elder Futhark was used from the 2nd to the 10th centuries CE on artifacts such as jewelry, amulets, tools, weapons, and runestones. The oldest known sequential listing of the alphabet dates to 400 CE and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland.​

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It was not only used for communication but also for magic and divination. The runes were believed to have secret and mystical meanings and powers. They were carved on objects or drawn on paper or wood to cast spells, protect from harm, or foretell the future.

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The Irish ogham is an ancient alphabet used to write the early Irish language, also known as Primitive Irish or Old Irish. It is composed of 20 letters, each represented by a series of strokes along or across a central line. The letters are grouped into four sets of five, called aicmí (singular aicme). 

 

The ogham is also known as the Celtic tree alphabet, because each letter is named after a tree or a plant.

 

It was used from the 4th to the 10th centuries CE on stone monuments, wooden sticks, metal objects, and manuscripts. The oldest surviving inscriptions are found in Ireland and western Britain, mostly in southern Munster. The majority of the inscriptions consist of personal names, probably of the people commemorated by the monuments.

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The Irish ogham is written vertically from bottom to top or horizontally from right to left. The letters are named after trees or plants in the following order: Beith (birch), Luis (rowan), Fearn (alder), Sail (willow), Nion (ash), Uath (hawthorn), Dair (oak), Tinne (holly), Coll (hazel), Ceirt (apple), Muin (vine), Gort (ivy), nGéadal (reed), Straif (blackthorn), Ruis (elder), Ailm (pine), Onn (gorse), Úr (heather), Eadhadh (aspen), and Iodhadh (yew).

Alchemy is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was practiced in various regions of the world, such as Europe, Asia, and Africa. Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials, such as metals, minerals, and elixirs. They also sought to discover the secrets of nature and the universe, such as the transmutation of base metals into gold, the creation of an elixir of immortality, and the creation of panaceas that could cure any disease.

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Alchemy originated in the early centuries CE, mainly in Egypt, Greece, and Rome, but later spread to India, China, and England by the 12th century. Alchemy was influenced by various sources of knowledge, such as religion, mythology, astrology, magic, and natural science.

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Alchemy had a significant impact on the development of modern science (especially chemistry and medicine) and culture (especially literature and art). Alchemists contributed to the discovery of new substances (such as alcohol, acids, and salts), new techniques (such as distillation, sublimation, and calcination), and new theories (such as atomism, vitalism, and phlogiston). Alchemists also inspired many writers and artists with their imagery, symbolism, and quest for knowledge.